Fullo - Roman Laundry

In Ancient Roman society, clothes were made mostly of wool and of light colour, thus regularly needing to be cleaned as a result of use in the hot Mediterranean climate.

Rather than washing their own clothes, people would take them to a cloth-launderer. On rural farms, slaves would do this.

Firstly, the clothes would be placed into small tubs located within niches surrounded by walls. The tubs would be filled with water mixed with alkaline chemicals, most commonly human or animal urine. The urine would be gathered from vessels kept at the corners of the street, filled by passers-by.

The fuller would trample the cloth with his feet, then scrubbing it and wringing it out. The chemicals would remove grease and fats. 'Fuller's earth' would also be rubbed onto the cloth for the same purpose.  These 'fulling stalls' are used to identify such 'fullonicae' in archaeological sites, due to their universal use.

The clothes would then be rinsed and washed to remove the chemicals used beforehand. This would be done in large basins connected to the urban water supply.

After rinsing, the cloth would finally be treated in various ways. How this was done varied in certain places and the whims of customers.

In no particular order:

Cloth would be brushed, often with the thistles of plants or the skin of hedgehogs.

The cloth would sometimes also be treated with sulphur. According to the writings of Pliny, so-called cimolian earth was rubbed into the cloth in order to whiten it, having previously been blasted with sulphur steam, in order to destroy colours and maintain the white colour.

The cloth would also be pressed in screw presses, found in the ruins of Pompeii and Herculaneum.


The work of 'fullones' was an issue treated seriously in Ancient Roman society. So seriously, that in 220 B.C, the Censors C.Flaminius and L.Aemilius proscribed into law the manner in which clothing was to be properly washed.

Roman law emphasized the use of 'Cimolian Earth' in order to brighten colours faded due to use of sulphur.

Fullones were legally responsible for the clothes in their possession, and were thus subject to penalties if said clothes were damaged or returned to the wrong person.

Although the work of the Fullo was highly respected, clothes were considered devalued when they were cleaned, the Emperor Elagabalus going so far as to say that he would not touch washed linen. Thusly, it was considered in poor taste to gift to someone an already-washed article of clothing.

The work of the fullones was connected to the Goddess Minerva, and on March 19th, the feast of Quinquatrus was often held within the workshops of the fullones in her name.

Though some evidence exists, modern historical studies doubt the idea that fullones ever treated cloth straight from the loom.

Sources:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fullo

http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Fullo.html

Howell Davis: The bizarre Welsh pirate adventure in Africa

Howell Davis was a Welsh pirate, born around 1690. Davis had become a pirate in 1718, and was ransacking ships along the African coast. Having plundered several merchant ships, he had also taken a 32-gun Dutch ship which he renamed the Rover.

 In the bay of Anamaboe, he had taken three more ships, one of which was called the Princess, on board which another Welshman called Bartholomew Roberts was serving as a second-mate. When the ship was boarded, Roberts somewhat-unenthusiastically joined the pirates.

Following this, Davis would soon make his biggest find, a Dutch ship containing the Governor of Acra and almost £15,000 as well as other valuable cargo.

However, following this, Davis had realised a far easier way of getting rich than simple force; he decided to use his natural intelligence, charm and charisma to make money. He began by meeting with the commander of a Royal African Company slaving fort in Gambia, pretending to be a legitimate privateer serving the King of Great Britain. The commander arranged for a dinner to be held, welcoming Davis. However, during this dinner, the Welsh pirate took the Commander hostage, seizing £2000 in gold in exchange for his life.

Deciding that this method was more preferable to that of the sword, Davis went next to the Portuguese-held island of Principe.  Going ashore, having flown the British flag from a captured Man-O-War , he met with the Portuguese Governor, pretending that he was, once more, an English pirate-hunter. The Portuguese Governor fell for this ruse, offering assistance against pirates. Davis accepted his help, asking any bills for his men’s supplies to be sent to the King of England.

He promptly returned to his ship, just as a French ship entered the harbour. ‘Explaining’ to the Governor that this was crewed by ‘pirates’; he attacked and captured the ship, impressing the Governor and further earning his trust.

Intending to completely earn the Governor’s trust, he offered the Governor twelve slaves as a gift, intending to lure him aboard his ship to kidnap him and hold him for ransom, aiming to receive £40,000 in exchange for the Governor. However, the night before this could happen, one of the slaves escaped, warning the Portuguese.

Thusly, when Davis went ashore the next morning to escort his ‘guest’ to view his ‘gift’, the Portuguese had prepared an ambush for him, killing him and many of his men.

His death in June or July 1719 is recorded in ‘Captain Charles Johnson’s’ A General History of the Pyrates:

“…just as he fell, he perceived he was follow'd, and drawing out his Pistols, fired them at his pursuers: Thus like a game Cock, giving a dying Blow, that he might not fall unavenged."

(Johnson 193, quoted from http://latinamericanhistory.about.com/od/historyofthecaribbean/a/Biography-Of-Howell-Davis_2.htm)

By the time of his death, Davis had become the 14^th richest pirate, despite having only been one for 11 months.

Upon his death, his remaining crew appointed another Captain, the Welshman Bartholomew Roberts, now regarded as one of the most successful pirates in history. His first act as Captain was to avenge his compatriot; assaulting the fort of Principe, looting it and tossing its cannons into the ocean. The civilian population was forced into the woods as Roberts’ ship bombarded the town to rubble, burning two Portuguese ships in the harbour before departing in satisfaction.

So ended a genuinely cunning pirate who had used one of piracy’s more unknown tactics: trickery through skilled acting. A pirate who considered violence a last resort and went against modern stereotypes is surely noteworthy. It is a pity that men such as these are not better remembered, for they present a far broader image of 18^th Century pirates than most know today.

Sources:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howell_Davis

http://latinamericanhistory.about.com/od/historyofthecaribbean/a/Biography-Of-Howell-Davis_2.htm

All the Countries We’ve Ever Invaded-by Stuart Laycock(The History Press; 2012)

Roman Army Rations

At the Roman Army’s height, rations for the troops were fairly uniform across the Empire, remaining consistent throughout the centuries, with some variation depending on region. (For example, in the Germanian winter green vegetables were rare, and scurvy was rife)

Each regular soldier received around 830 grams of wheat per day in the form of grain, less perishable than flour, meaning it could be used for longer to make food. This was then milled with a hand mill and baked. This bread was durable and held together for a long time on a journey due to a high gluten content in the wheat, which kept the bread chewy and strong. The grain was also used to make gruel.

Barley, although it contains more protein than wheat, was considered the food of slaves (Gladiators were given it as a special food; earning the name ‘barley-eaters) or used as horse fodder. Thusly, it only seems to have been used as a punishment ration for soldiers.

A cavalryman received twice as much grain as a foot soldier, with half of it presumably given to his horse.

The Roman fort at Vindolanda’s records also suggest that bacon was heavily supplied to the army, at least in Britain. Each Contubernium (group of eight soldiers) had one frying pan to cook this bacon ration.

The Roman Army’s meat ration was substantial, consisting of locally available meats, such as boar, mutton, beef, venison, goat or hare, with elk, bear, wild ox, freshwater mussels, goose, beaver and horse also recorded at times, depending upon local availability.

Eggs and olives were either imported or locally bought.

Cheese and vegetables were also provided to the men, with posca (A mix of sour wine that was not yet vinegar and water) being most commonly distributed as drink amongst the soldiers at around a litre per day. This wine was favoured due to low alcohol levels by soldiers.

Using these rations, porridges and stews involving this meat and vegetables could also be produced. Olive oil or lard was supplied for cooking.

In order to supplement this diet, a soldier could use his pay to purchase additional supplies from local suppliers or merchants who followed the army around with the intent of profiting from the soldiers. When stationed at a permanent fort, soldiers could go outside, purchasing food or eating it in restaurants, kitchens or vendors in the surrounding vicus, or civilian settlement.

Garum, a fish sauce created by fermented fish organs was also supplied as a garnish to food in forts when available, seen as a considerable luxury by the Romans.

Fruit such as figs, raspberries, blackberries, bilberries, apples and strawberries were commonly eaten, as well as nuts such as hazelnuts. Coriander, dill, celery, linseed and even opium poppies were used either in medicine or to supplement cooking.

Soldiers might also receive gifts of food sent to them from friends and family.

So as to maintain a supply of food, Legions would travel with a herd of cattle such as cows, sheep or goats.

In order to keep such a massive army going, the Roman Army just in Britain ate 33.5 tons of grain each day to keep going. If no such food was available, soldiers would take what they could from the countryside.

This complex rationing system was the oil that kept the vast Roman War Machine going, but could also serve as a weapon against it. Were an enemy to control Egypt and Gaul, the ‘breadbaskets’ of the Empire, the entire army could starve. Thusly, during Rome’s many civil wars, this tactic was used many times.

Sources:

http://resourcesforhistory.com/Roman_Food_in_Britain.htm

http://romanmilitary.net/people/food/

http://www.romanarmy.net/food.shtml

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_and_dining_in_the_Roman_Empire#The_army

http://www.jaysromanhistory.com/romeweb/cuisine/art1.htm

http://www.antonineway.com/index.php/history-roman/15-the-roman-empire-army-life

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pearled_barley#Food

http://trac.org.uk/pubs/trac2008/trac2008_85-100/#full-text-from-ocr-unformatted-included-for-search-purposes-only

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Rome_and_wine

http://blogs.gloucestertimes.com/foodforthought/2011/06/03/garum-eat-like-a-roman-soldier/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garum

Example Equipment: Teutonic Knights in the 1270s

From the 13th to 16th Centuries, the Teutonic Order, founded in the 1190s in Palestine, originally running a hospital but later becoming a powerful brotherhood of armed knights, began to dominate the Baltic, combating Lithuanian Pagans, amongst others.

The knights of this order were heavily armed, making fearsome foes for any who faced them, establishing many castles across Prussia, including the famously impenetrable Malbork Castle, the site of a famous siege following the Battle of Tannenberg.

Equipment of a Knight in 1270:

By the late 13th Century, the knights of the order and very well armed and equipped:

Helmet

The knight would have worn an enclosing iron great helm, covering the face and domed around the crown of the head, to deflect glancing blows.

A fitting was also placed at the top of the helmet, where a crest could be attached. These were fear-inducing accoutrements designed to resemble demonic horns, inducing fear in foes. These could be used as representations as family heraldry or as mere decoration.

Body Armour

The knight would have worn under his chain-mail shirt, or hauberk, a gambeson, a tunic padded with wool, designed to add another layer of protection while also preventing the mail from chafing the skin. 

On the head, under the coif or above it was worn a padded arming cap which cushioned the head.

Above this would have been worn a chain-mail hauberk, covering the upper body, including the arms. A mail coif, or hood would have covered the neck and head. Chain-mail was also worn on the legs and feet, while mail gloves were worn on the hands.

On the knees, an early form of plate armour was worn in the form of solid poleyns worn on the knees for further protection.

Above the mail coat, a loose surcoat was also worn, bearing the heraldry of the Order.

Shield and Weapons

The knight, at this time might have used a longsword, following new fashions with a round pommel. The knight's shield was iron-shaped, bearing the Order's heraldry. It was made of thin wood laminated with layers of leather, providing good protection.

Due to all of these protective items, a Teutonic knight would have been almost invincible on the battlefield, be he on horseback or on foot. This equipment would have allowed the knights to easily dominate the battlefield with their elite troops against the pagan armies. Such an advantage allowed the knights to dominate the Baltic for almost two centuries, and their influence is still present in the region, in their castles and in their culture.

13th Century bronze representation of a knight, wearing equipment similar to previous description. (Public Domain from Wikimedia Commons)

Sources:A Chronicle History of Knights, by Andrea Hopkins (Silverdale Books; 2004)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crest_(heraldry)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_helm

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heater_shield

First Post: Fascinating German aircraft of the Second World War

Now, to begin this blog with an auspicious first post:

The German War Machine, in its final days had achieved several breakthroughs in engineering, crafting some of the most advanced aircraft of their time. However, these technicians were also responsible for some of the most bizarre:

The Heinkel He 162

The Heinkel He 162 'Volksjager' was one of the Luftwaffe's more desperate designs, intended to be mass-produced as a jet fighter, with carpenters making almost the entirety of the aircraft parts out of plywood in sheds rather than factories. Pilots were to come purely from the Hitler Youth as opposed to the Luftwaffe, with only glider training.

Even more shocking is the fact that development of the aircraft had only begun 38 days before the plane's first flight on 6th December 1944, reflecting the immense desperation that had engulfed the Reich.

In order to make the plane as cheap as possible, the powerplant had been mounted upon the top of the fuselage, reducing any need for a complex exhaust system throughout the plane. Interestingly, despite the dedication to low cost, an ejection seat was included. 4000 were intended to be produced every month, overwhelming the allies through sheer force. However, by the time 200 had made it out of the factories, the allies had won the war, ending any dreams for a mass-produced swarm of jet fighters.

The fighter only saw combat in mid-April 1945, shooting down several allied planes. At the end of the war, many of the aircrews for these planes destroyed them rather than see them captured. The French air force would however, utilise the 162 as a test aircraft, which was apparently difficult to handle unless fully trained.

The Bachem Ba 349 Natter

This aircraft was equally bizarre and yet at the same time ingenious. Propelled by rocket, the plane was armed with a battery of rockets in the nose. when the fuel and armament were expended, the pilot and the rear section of the aircraft would parachute down to the ground for reuse.

The aircraft would never see combat, with many burned rather than captured. Only one original survives, in the USA.


Fieseler Fi 103 Reichenberg IV

This aircraft was truly a desperate weapon, being a suicide weapon in all but name, being a piloted V1 rocket designed to offer superb accuracy against ground targets. In theory, the the pilot would aim the aircraft at a target and then quickly bail out, but this is believed to be almost impossible, which was likely why no sorties were ever flown against the allies.

The unit was disbanded shortly before the end of the war, Hitler having been convinced that suicide bombers were not a part of the German martial tradition.

These aircraft were both remarkable and somewhat farcical in terms of design, and serve to illustrate both the genius of German engineering and the desperation of the Greater German Reich. However, they shall always remain truly fascinating examples of 20th Century engineering.


Sources used:

'The Military History of World War II' by Temple Press Aerospace (First published 1986)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinkel_He_162

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bachem_Ba_349

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fieseler_Fi_103R_Reichenberg

http://www.militaryfactory.com/aircraft/detail.asp?aircraft_id=106